Ferdinand de Saussure

"A linguistic system is a series of differences of sound
combined with a series of differences of ideas."
-Ferdinand de Saussure
Of Swiss origin, Ferdinand de Saussure was a linguist who laid down the foundation for much of the significant developments in the field of 20th century linguistics. Often refered to as the “father” of linguistics, Saussure is widely credited for his system of linguistic elements from his book, Course in General Linguistics. This book was posthumously published in 1916 by hos former students and introduces the elements such as the linguistic sign, signifier, signified and referent to present an idea of how language works. Course in General Linguistics is considered Saussure’s most influential work and Saussure’s impact on modern linguistics because of this work is unmatched.
In Course in General Linguistics, Saussure explained how the sign is “the basic unit of language” and that “every language is a complete system of signs.” He then elaborates to describe what are signifiers, the signified and the referents in language and how these elements create each individual language and the rudiments of communication. He explores the arbitrariness of language and thus its fickleness. Saussure states that,“there is no natural reason why a particular sign should be attached to a particular concept.” This linguistic structure is the basis for Saussure’s theory and has shaped not only the field of linguistics, but has carried over into the fields of sociology and art as well. Much of modern art plays on Saussure’s concepts of sign versus signifier and the irony that lays in the faulty foundation of language signs.
Richard Rorty
“The world does not speak. Only we do. The world can, once we have programmed
ourselves with a language, cause us to hold beliefs. But it cannot propose a language
for us to speak. Only other human beings can do that.”
-Richard Rorty
Richard Rorty was primarily an American philosopher whose works crossed over into the fields of Humanities and Literature as well. He taught as a professor of philosophy at Princeton University for 21 years during which time he developed much of the ideas he is known for today. In his works and essays, Rorty often relied on works of literature to demonstrate his ideas an his his book, Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity (1989), Rorty utilizes the works of Nietzshe, Proust, Nabokov and James to explain his philosophical theories in more conceptual terms, instead of heavily relying on analytical philosophy that was the standard. In this book, Rorty first introduces the terminology of Ironism, which he uses to describe his mindset and his philosophy.
Rorty also wrote on social hope and the role of religion in contemporary culture. In contrast to his works on irony and solidarity, his ideas on friendship, companionship and social hope as in religion are also as much of his philosophical legacies. He is very well known for utilizing a comprehensive and full grasp of analytical philosophy which he would famously reject later in life when he began to utilize alternative conceptual schemas to explain his ideas. This has given rise to much controversy over Rorty as a philosopher and has also made him one of the most widely discussed philosophers in our time. His works and teachings and vast collection of writings have provoked interest from highly acclaimed persons in various academic departments and his legacy as a philosopher is momentous.

Clement Greenberg
“Art criticism, I would say, is about the most ungrateful form of "elevated" writing I know of.”
-Clement Greenberg
Born in New York City in 1909, Clement Greenberg is considered, with little subjectivity, as one of the greatest art critics of the later 20th century. Credited with pushing the modern art movement in America and promoting the Abstract Expressionist movement after World War II, Greenberg brought to life the American modern art movement. Great American artists such as Jackson Pollack and Clifford Still were brought into the mainstream because of the influence that Greenberg had as an art critic during the 20th century.
In his book, Late Writings, published in 2003, Greenberg’s later works are assembled to form a book that examines the current state and eventual fates of art movements such as modernism, art criticism and culture in respect to region and media. The book also includes four interviews with Greenberg himself discussing his work as an art critic and his personal views on the current art trends.
When pop art became mainstream during the 1960s with works by artists such as Andy Warhol, Greenberg did not support it and called it overly “kitche” and appealing to the very ideas of art and appeal that he himself denounced. Although he lost much favorability because of his views of pop art, he remains a leading art critic with a solid following of people who feel that without him, modern art in America would not be what it is today.

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